"A Gender-Neutral History of English Literature with Contexts" offers a comprehensive and inclusive overview of English literature. It includes key timelines of political, economic, and religious contexts, lists of women and men writers for each period, and explores major themes often overlooked in traditional literary histories.
EARLY PERIODS OF LITERATURE
These periods are spans of time in which literature shared intellectual, linguistic, religious, and artistic influences. In the
Western tradition, the early periods of literary history are roughly as follows below:
A. THE CLASSICAL AGE (1200 BCE - 455 CE)
This age comprises of four periods in the early history of literature.
I. HOMERIC OR HEROIC PERIOD (1200-800 BCE)
The Homeric or Heroic period was a time in ancient Greek history marked by the oral transmission of legends and myths, including the famous epics The Iliad and The Odyssey attributed to the poet Homer. According to William Henry Hudson in his Introduction to the Study of Literature, these epic poems "represent the climax of Greek heroic poetry" and "stand at the head of the literature of Europe" (Hudson, p. 5). The Iliad tells the story of the Trojan War and the Odyssey tells the story of the hero Odysseus's journey home after the war. These poems were likely composed in the 8th century BCE and were an important part of ancient Greek culture, widely studied and admired.
The Homeric period was also a time of great cultural and political upheaval in ancient Greece, as Andrew Sanders explains in The Short Oxford History of English Literature: "The world of the Homeric epics was one of great social and political change, a world in which the old heroic values of the Mycenaean age were giving way to the new order of the polis" (Sanders, p. 3). This period was a transition between the Mycenaean civilization of the Late Bronze Age and the rise of the city-states in the Classical period. During this time, the Greek world was marked by a proliferation of warrior-princes, wandering sea-traders, and fierce pirates. The Homeric epics, with their themes of adventure, heroism, and conflict, reflect this tumultuous time in Greek history.
According to Mario Klarer in his Introduction to Literary Studies, the Homeric epics are important not only for their historical and cultural significance, but also for their enduring literary value. Klarer notes that "the lasting appeal of the Homeric epics is due not only to their narrative power and the individualization of their heroes, but also to the universal themes they address, such as the nature of justice, the role of the gods, the importance of hospitality, the power of fate, and the quest for identity" (Klarer, p. 7). These themes continue to resonate with readers today and have made the Homeric epics enduring classics of world literature.
II. CLASSICAL GREEK PERIOD (800-200 BCE)
According to Mario Klarer in his Introduction to Literary Studies, the Classical Greek period was a time of great innovation and experimentation in literature. The playwrights of this period, such as Sophocles and Euripides, introduced new elements into the traditional Greek dramatic form, such as the use of tragic irony and the exploration of psychological complexity in their characters (Klarer, p. 8). The philosophers of this period, such as Plato and Socrates, developed new ideas about the nature of reality and the meaning of life that continue to influence philosophy and thought today.
The Classical Greek period, which lasted from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE, was also a time of great cultural and intellectual achievement in ancient Greece. During this period, Greek playwrights, philosophers, and authors such as Euripides, Sophocles, Aesop, Plato, Socrates, and Gorgias made important contributions to literature, philosophy, and other fields. The fifth century BCE, in particular, is often referred to as The Golden Age of Greece because of the exceptional flowering of Greek culture and intellectual life during this time (Klarer, p. 7).
According to Andrew Sanders in The Short Oxford History of English Literature, the Classical Greek period saw the development of the city-state, or polis, which was the primary unit of political organization in ancient Greece. The polis was a self-governing community that included not only the city itself, but also the surrounding countryside (Sanders, p. 3). The Classical Greek period also saw the emergence of early democracy, with the city of Athens becoming a particularly important center of political and cultural life. The city of Athens was the birthplace of some of the greatest works of philosophy, poetry, theatre, and art in the world (Hudson, p. 5).
Noteable Male Writers & Works
Hesiod (8th or 7th century BCE) - Works and Days and Theogony
Pindar (5th century BCE) - Epinician Odes
Aeschylus (5th century BCE) - The Oresteia trilogy, Persians, Seven Against Thebes, and others
Sophocles (5th century BCE) - Oedipus Rex, Antigone, and others
Euripides (5th century BCE) - Medea, The Trojan Women, The Bacchae, and others
Aristophanes (5th century BCE) - Lysistrata, The Clouds, The Birds, and others
Plato (4th century BCE) - The Republic, Symposium, Phaedo, and others
Aristotle (4th century BCE) - Poetics, Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, and others
Notable Women
Agnodice - According to legend, Agnodice was a female physician who disguised herself as a man in order to practice medicine in Athens. Her story is told in the writings of the ancient Greek physician Soranus.
Aristoclea - A priestess of the temple of Apollo at Delphi who was said to have been a teacher of the philosopher Pythagoras.
Themistoclea - A priestess of the temple of Apollo at Delphi who was said to have been a mentor to the Athenian statesman and general, Miltiades.
Telesilla - A poet from Argos who was celebrated for her martial poetry and was credited with leading the defense of her city against a Spartan invasion in the 5th century BCE.
Diotima of Mantinea - A philosopher and priestess who was mentioned in Plato's Symposium as a teacher of Socrates. However, it is not clear if Diotima was a real historical figure or a fictional character invented by Plato.
Hipparchia of Maroneia - A philosopher and follower of the Cynic school who lived in the 4th century BCE. She was known for her rejection of traditional gender roles and social conventions, and for her advocacy of a simple, virtuous life. Unfortunately, none of her written works have survived to the present day.
Note: It is worth noting that these women were exceptions to the norm in ancient Greece, where women were generally excluded from public life and intellectual pursuits. Most women in ancient Greece were confined to the domestic sphere and had little opportunity to pursue education or participate in public discourse.
III. CLASSICAL ROMAN PERIOD (200 BCE-455 CE)
According to Andrew Sanders in The Short Oxford History of English Literature, the Classical Roman period, which lasted from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, was a time of great political and cultural change in the Roman world. In 146 BCE, Rome conquered Greece, bringing the culture of Greece under Roman rule (Sanders, p. 3). The Roman Republic, which was supposedly established in 509 BCE, reached its full potential in the following centuries. Playwrights such as Plautus and Terence were active during this time.
After almost 500 years as a Republic, Rome entered a dictatorship under Julius Caesar. This was followed by the establishment of the Roman Empire under Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE. According to William Henry Hudson in his Introduction to the Study of Literature, the Roman Imperial era, which lasted until the 5th century CE, was a time of great expansion and prosperity for the Roman Empire. Roman authors such as Ovid, Horace, and Virgil were active during this time and made important contributions to literature (Hudson, p. 7). Roman thinkers such as Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius also made important contributions to philosophy (Klarer, p. 9).
The Classical Roman period was also a time of great achievement in the field of rhetoric. Rhetoricians such as Cicero and Quintilian were important figures in this field and made significant contributions to the development of rhetorical theory and practice (Klarer, p. 10). Overall, the Classical Roman period was a time of great cultural and intellectual achievement in the Roman world.
Notable Male Figures
Cicero (106-43 BCE) - Philosopher, statesman, orator, lawyer, and writer who produced a vast body of works on a wide range of topics, including politics, rhetoric, ethics, and religion. His most famous works include "De Officiis," "De Oratore," and "Pro Milone."
Lucretius (99-55 BCE) - Philosopher and poet who is best known for his epic poem "De Rerum Natura" ("On the Nature of Things"), which presents a materialistic and atomistic view of the universe.
Virgil (70-19 BCE) - Poet who is best known for his epic poem "The Aeneid," which tells the story of the Trojan hero Aeneas and his journey to found Rome.
Horace (65-8 BCE) - Poet who is best known for his satirical works, including "Satires" and "Epistles."
Seneca (4 BCE-65 CE) - Philosopher, statesman, and playwright who wrote extensively on ethics and Stoic philosophy. His most famous works include "Letters from a Stoic," "On the Shortness of Life," and "Medea."
Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) - Naturalist and writer who is best known for his encyclopedic work "Naturalis Historia," which covers a wide range of topics, including zoology, botany, and astronomy.
Tacitus (56-117 CE) - Historian and politician who wrote extensively on the early Roman Empire, including his most famous works, "The Annals" and "The Histories."
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE) - Philosopher and emperor who wrote his "Meditations" as a series of personal reflections on Stoic philosophy and the challenges of leadership.
Plotinus (204-270 CE) - Philosopher who founded the school of Neoplatonism and wrote extensively on metaphysics and ethics. His most famous works include the "Enneads."
Notable Women
Cornelia Africana (190 BCE-100 BCE): A Roman noblewoman and mother of the Gracchi brothers, who were important political figures. Cornelia was known for her intelligence and education, and was respected as a role model for Roman women.
Helvia (1st century BCE): The mother of the philosopher Seneca, Helvia was known for her stoicism and strength of character. She encouraged her son's interest in philosophy and was an important influence on his life and work.
Eumachia (1st century CE): A wealthy woman from Pompeii who used her resources to build public buildings and support the local community. Eumachia was a priestess of the cult of Venus and was honored with a statue in the city's forum.
Sulpicia (1st century CE): A poet who wrote love elegies in the style of the Roman poet Tibullus. Only a few of her works survive, but they offer a rare glimpse into the literary contributions of Roman women.
Hypatia (370 CE-415 CE): A philosopher and mathematician who taught in Alexandria, Egypt. Hypatia was known for her intellect and her advocacy for Neoplatonic philosophy. She was tragically murdered by a mob in 415 CE.
Macrina the Younger (327 CE-379 CE): A Christian philosopher who was part of a prominent family of intellectuals in Cappadocia, in modern-day Turkey. Macrina was influential in the development of Christian theology and was a respected teacher and writer in her own right.
Galla Placidia (392 CE-450 CE): A Roman empress who ruled during a turbulent period in the empire's history. Galla Placidia was known for her intelligence and political acumen, and was a patron of the arts and letters.
Unfortunately, much of the work of these women has been lost over time, and many other female writers and philosophers from the Classical Roman period are not known to us by name.
IV. PATRISTIC PERIOD (c. 70 CE-455 CE)
The Patristic period, which lasted from the 1st century CE to the 5th century CE, was a time of great importance in the history of Christianity. During this period, there were many writings by early Christian authors, including St. Augustine, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Ambrose, and St. Jerome. These authors made important contributions to Christian theology and philosophy (Hudson, p. 9).
The Patristic period also saw the expansion of Christianity throughout Europe. According to Andrew Sanders in The Short Oxford History of English Literature, during this time the Roman Empire experienced its last convulsions as it was invaded by barbarian tribes (Sanders, p. 4). In 410 CE, the city of Rome was first invaded by barbarian tribes, and by 455 CE, the city had completely fallen to them (Klarer, p. 11).
One of the most significant achievements of the Patristic period was the preparation of the first draught of the Bible by Saint Jerome. This translation, known as the Vulgate, became the standard version of the Bible for the Western Church and had a major influence on the development of Christianity (Klarer, p. 12). Overall, the Patristic period was a time of great significance in the history of Christianity and had a lasting impact on the development of European culture.
Notable Men
Saint Augustine (354 CE-430 CE): A theologian and bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa, Augustine is considered one of the most important figures in the development of Western Christianity. His works, including "Confessions" and "City of God," continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.
Origen (184 CE-253 CE): A theologian and philosopher who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, Origen was a prolific writer and a key figure in the development of Christian doctrine. His works include "On First Principles" and "Against Celsus."
Tertullian (c. 155 CE-c. 240 CE): A Christian author from Carthage, Tertullian was known for his defense of orthodox Christian doctrine and his polemical works against heresy. His works include "On the Prescription of Heretics" and "Against Marcion."
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 CE-c. 215 CE): A Christian theologian and philosopher who taught in Alexandria, Egypt, Clement was known for his synthesis of Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine. His works include "The Stromata" and "Exhortation to the Greeks."
Saint Athanasius (c. 296 CE-373 CE): A bishop of Alexandria and a key figure in the development of Christian orthodoxy, Athanasius is best known for his defense of the doctrine of the Trinity. His works include "On the Incarnation" and "Against the Arians."
Saint John Chrysostom (c. 347 CE-407 CE): A bishop of Constantinople and a renowned preacher, Chrysostom is known for his homilies and sermons, many of which survive to this day. His works include "Homilies on Genesis" and "Homilies on Matthew."
Saint Jerome (c. 347 CE-420 CE): A Christian theologian and scholar, Jerome is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin, known as the Vulgate. His works include "Commentary on Matthew" and "The Life of Saint Paul the First Hermit."
Notable Women
Perpetua and Felicity: Two Christian martyrs who wrote the "Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity," an autobiographical account of their imprisonment and execution.
Macrina the Younger: Sister of Gregory of Nyssa and Basil the Great, who was an important theologian in her own right. She wrote several theological treatises and was known for her philosophical dialogues.
Marcella: A Christian scholar who hosted Jerome during his time in Rome. She was known for her learning and theological acumen.
Egeria: A pilgrim who wrote an account of her travels to the Holy Land, which is one of the earliest surviving accounts of Christian pilgrimage.
Major Themes in The Classical Age
The Classical Age (1200 BCE - 455 CE) saw the emergence of epic poetry, lyric poetry, tragedy, and comedy, among other literary genres. Some major themes that appeared in literature during this period include:
Heroism: The concept of heroism was prevalent in the literature of the Classical Age. Heroes were portrayed as figures who embodied the values of their society, such as honor, courage, and loyalty. Examples of heroic figures in this period include Achilles in Homer's Iliad and Odysseus in his Odyssey.
Fate and Free Will: The tension between fate and free will was explored in Classical literature. While some characters were fated to meet a certain end, others had agency and could shape their own destinies. Examples of this theme include the story of Oedipus in Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex and the role of the Fates in Virgil's Aeneid.
Love and Desire: Love and desire were prominent themes in Classical literature. Many works explored the passions and struggles of lovers, often with tragic results. Examples include the love between Dido and Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid and the story of Orpheus and Eurydice in Ovid's Metamorphoses.
War and Conflict: War and conflict were central themes in Classical literature, reflecting the turbulent times in which the works were written. Examples include the Trojan War in Homer's Iliad and the Peloponnesian War in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War.
The Divine and the Supernatural: The Classical Age saw a fascination with the divine and the supernatural, often exploring the relationships between gods and mortals. Examples include the interactions between gods and mortals in Homer's epics and the role of the gods in the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
Philosophy and Ethics: Philosophy and ethics were important themes in Classical literature, with many works exploring questions about the nature of reality, the purpose of life, and the nature of morality. Examples include the philosophy of Socrates in the works of Plato and the Stoic philosophy of Epictetus.
Nature and the Environment: The beauty and power of the natural world were also important themes in Classical literature. Many works explored the relationship between humans and the natural world, often with a sense of wonder and awe. Examples include the descriptions of nature in Homer's epics and the pastoral poetry of Theocritus.
B. THE MEDIEVAL AGE (455 CE-1485 CE)
This age comprises of two periods in the early history of literature.
I.THE OLD ENGLISH (ANGLO-SAXON) PERIOD (428-1066)
According to Andrew Sanders in The Short Oxford History of English Literature, the Old English (Anglo-Saxon) period, which lasted from 428 CE to 1066 CE, was a time of great political and cultural change in Europe and Britain (Sanders, p. 5). This period marked the beginning of the so-called "Dark Ages" (455 CE-799 CE), which were characterized by the collapse of the Roman Empire and the invasion of Europe by barbarian tribes.
During the Old English period, the original Celts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales were displaced by the Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths, who settled in the ruins of the Roman Empire. In Britain, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrated to the island and established their own kingdoms. The earliest Anglo-Saxon poetry, including works such as Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer, dates from this time (Hudson, p. 10).
The Old English period also saw the emergence of the Carolingian Renaissance (800-850 CE) in Europe. According to Mario Klarer in his Introduction to Literary Studies, during this time texts such as early medieval grammars and encyclopedias were produced in central Europe (Klarer, p. 13). In northern Europe, this period marks the setting of Viking sagas (Sanders, p. 6). Overall, the Old English period was a time of great cultural and intellectual achievement in Europe and Britain.
Notable Men
Beowulf: An epic poem that tells the story of a hero named Beowulf who battles monsters and dragons.
Bede: A monk and historian who wrote "Ecclesiastical History of the English People," a chronicle of the early Christian church in England.
Caedmon: A poet who is known for his religious poetry, including his Hymn, the earliest known poem in Old English.
Alfred the Great: King of Wessex who commissioned the translation of several important Latin works into Old English, including "The Consolation of Philosophy" by Boethius.
Cynewulf: A poet who wrote several religious poems, including "The Fates of the Apostles" and "Christ."
The Venerable Bede: A monk and scholar who wrote several influential works, including "The Ecclesiastical History of the English People" and "De Temporum Ratione," a treatise on the calculation of the calendar.
Wulfstan: An Archbishop of York who wrote several religious and legal works, including "The Institutes of Polity" and "Sermo Lupi ad Anglos," a sermon warning against Viking invasions.
Notable Women
Unfortunately, there are no known female writers or philosophers from the Old English (Anglo-Saxon) period. This is not necessarily an indication that there were no women writers or thinkers during this time, but rather that their works may not have survived or been recorded. Women's contributions to literature and philosophy have often been overlooked or marginalized throughout history, and the lack of surviving works by women from this period is likely due to a combination of factors including social norms and gender-based discrimination.
II. THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (c. 1066-1450 CE)
The Middle English period, which lasted from the 11th century to the 15th century CE, was a time of great political, cultural, and literary change in Europe and Britain. This period saw the invasion and conquest of England by William I and the Norman French in 1066, which resulted in the abolition of the Anglo-Saxon echelons and the beginning of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance (c. 1100-1200 CE).
During the Middle English period, there was a growing popularity of French tales by Marie de France and Jeun de Meun, as well as chivalric romances by Chretien de Troyes (Hudson, p. 11). In addition, there were major scholarly and religious writings produced by humanists such as Abelard (Klarer, p. 14).
The Late or "High" Medieval Period (c. 1200-1485 CE) saw the emergence of many important Middle English authors, including Geoffrey Chaucer, the "Gawain" or "Pearl" Poet, the Wakefield Master, and William Langland. Italian and French authors such as Boccaccio, Petrarch (Related: What Is a Petrarchan Sonnet?), Dante, and Christine de Pisan also contributed to this turbulent and sometimes violent era (Sanders, p. 7).
Notable Women
Julian of Norwich: A mystic and anchorite who is best known for her book "Revelations of Divine Love," which is considered one of the most important works of Christian mysticism in English literature.
Marie de France: A poet who wrote in Anglo-Norman and is known for her works "Lais" and "Fables," which blend elements of Celtic folklore and courtly love.
Margery Kempe: An author who wrote "The Book of Margery Kempe," which is considered one of the earliest autobiographies in English. The book describes her mystical experiences and travels as a Christian pilgrim.
Christine de Pizan: A French author who wrote in Middle French and is known for her works "The Book of the City of Ladies" and "The Treasure of the City of Ladies," which are feminist works that challenge the misogynistic attitudes of the time.
Julian of Norwich: A mystic and anchorite who is best known for her book "Revelations of Divine Love," which is considered one of the most important works of Christian mysticism in English literature.
Notable Men
Geoffrey Chaucer: Known as the father of English literature, Chaucer is best known for his works "The Canterbury Tales" and "Troilus and Criseyde."
William Langland: Langland's most famous work is "Piers Plowman," a poem that explores themes of morality, religion, and social justice.
Sir Thomas Malory: Malory is the author of "Le Morte d'Arthur," a collection of stories about King Arthur and his knights.
John Gower: Gower's most famous work is "Confessio Amantis," a collection of stories about love and morality.
John Wycliffe: A theologian and religious reformer, Wycliffe is best known for his translation of the Bible into Middle English.
William of Ockham: A Franciscan friar and philosopher, Ockham is known for his work on logic, metaphysics, and political theory. He is perhaps best known for his principle of parsimony, known as Occam's Razor.
Julian of Norwich: An English mystic and theologian, Julian is best known for her work "Revelations of Divine Love," in which she describes a series of visions she had of God's love and mercy.
Richard Rolle: A hermit and religious writer, Rolle is known for his devotional works, including "The Fire of Love" and "The Mending of Life."
Walter Hilton: A mystic and writer, Hilton is known for his work "The Scale of Perfection," which outlines a path to spiritual perfection through contemplative prayer.
Major Themes in The Medieval Age (455 CE-1485 CE)
The Medieval Age (455 CE-1485 CE) was a period of significant change and development in European literature, marked by a mix of classical, Christian, and chivalric traditions. Some of the major themes in literature during this period include:
Religion: Christianity was the dominant religion in Europe during this period, and religious themes permeated much of the literature. Examples include the religious allegory "The Divine Comedy" by Dante Alighieri and the morality play "Everyman."
Chivalry: The concept of chivalry emerged during the Medieval Age, emphasizing the virtues of honor, bravery, and loyalty. Examples include the Arthurian legends, such as "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," and the epic poem "Beowulf."
Courtly Love: A popular theme in Medieval literature was courtly love, which idealized a nobleman's love for a woman who was typically unattainable. Examples include the poetry of Troubadours and Trouvères, such as "The Romance of the Rose" and "Tristan and Isolde."
Epic Poetry: The Medieval Age was known for its epic poetry, such as the Old English poem "Beowulf," the French "Song of Roland," and the Italian "Divine Comedy."
Quests: Quests were a common theme in Medieval literature, often involving a hero or group of heroes on a journey to accomplish a specific goal. Examples include the Arthurian legend of the quest for the Holy Grail and the medieval romance "The Knight's Tale" by Geoffrey Chaucer.
Overall, Medieval literature was deeply influenced by religion, chivalry, courtly love, and epic storytelling, creating a rich tapestry of themes and styles that continue to captivate readers today.
Key Timeline Narratives 455 CE-1485 CE
Political Background
Here is a timeline of some of the major political upheavals that occurred during The Medieval Age:
476 CE: Fall of the Western Roman Empire
527-565 CE: Reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I and his conquests in Italy, North Africa, and Spain
632-661 CE: The First Muslim Civil War (Fitna) and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus
711 CE: The Umayyad conquest of Spain
1066 CE: Norman Conquest of England and the Battle of Hastings
1096-1270 CE: The Crusades, a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Catholic Church to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule
1204 CE: The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople
1215 CE: Signing of the Magna Carta by King John of England, establishing the principle that everyone, including the monarch, is subject to the law
1337-1453 CE: The Hundred Years' War between England and France over territorial and political control in Europe
1347-1351 CE: The Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed an estimated 75-200 million people in Eurasia
1453 CE: Fall of the Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.
Note that this is not an exhaustive list and there were many other political events and conflicts that occurred during this time period.
Economic Background
5th-6th centuries: The collapse of the Western Roman Empire leads to the emergence of feudalism as a dominant social and economic system in Europe.
8th-9th centuries: The Carolingian Empire expands and creates a centralized feudal state, which leads to a more stable economic environment.
11th century: The growth of trade and commerce in Europe leads to the development of new economic structures, such as towns and guilds, which challenge feudalism.
12th-13th centuries: The Crusades create new economic opportunities and lead to the expansion of trade networks between Europe and the Middle East.
14th century: The Black Death causes a major economic crisis in Europe, leading to labor shortages and changes in the relationship between lords and peasants.
15th century: The growth of international trade and the emergence of capitalism begin to undermine the feudal system, leading to the Renaissance and the early modern period.
Religious Background
The period from 455 CE to 1485 CE, commonly known as the Medieval Age, was marked by several religious conflicts. Here is a timeline of some of the major religious conflicts during this period:
451 CE: The Council of Chalcedon was held, which led to a split between the Eastern and Western Christian churches. This split, known as the Great Schism, remained in place for over 1,000 years.
529 CE: Emperor Justinian I closed down the Academy in Athens, which had been a center of pagan philosophy for over 900 years. This action was part of a larger campaign to eliminate pagan influence in the Eastern Roman Empire.
1054 CE: The Great Schism was further exacerbated when the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated each other.
Late 11th century-early 13th century: The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims, with the goal of capturing the Holy Land. There were several Crusades during this period, with varying degrees of success.
1378-1417 CE: The Western Schism was a split within the Roman Catholic Church, with rival popes claiming authority. This schism was resolved by the Council of Constance in 1417 CE.
1517 CE: Martin Luther's publication of the Ninety-Five Theses marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. This movement led to the formation of new Protestant denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism.
These religious conflicts had a significant impact on the politics, society, and culture of Europe and the Middle East during the Medieval Age.
C. THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION (c. 1485-1660 CE)
In Britain, the Renaissance occurs in the late 15th, early 16th, and early 17th centuries. In Italy and southern Europe, it occurs somewhat sooner, while in northern Europe, it occurs slightly later.
This age comprises of four periods in the early history of literature.
I. Early Tudor Period (1485-1558)
The Early Tudor period, which lasted from 1485 to 1558 CE, was a time of great political and religious change in Europe and Britain. According to William Henry Hudson in Introduction to the Study of Literature, this period saw the end of the War of the Roses in England with the accession of Henry Tudor (Henry VII) to the throne (Hudson, p. 12).
The Early Tudor period also marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, with the break from Rome by Martin Luther and the establishment of the first Protestant church in England by Henry VIII (Sanders, p. 8). The Anglican schism, as it was known, was a significant event in the history of Christianity and had far-reaching consequences for the religious landscape of Europe.
One notable poet of this period was Edmund Spenser, who is considered one of the greatest English poets of all time (Klarer, p. 15). His epic poem, The Faerie Queene, is considered a masterpiece of Renaissance literature and has had a lasting influence on English literature.
Notable Women
Margery Kempe (c. 1373- after 1438): Margery Kempe was an English Christian mystic who dictated "The Book of Margery Kempe," which is considered to be the first autobiography in English. The book chronicles her spiritual journey and her encounters with various religious figures.
Elizabeth I (1533-1603): Elizabeth I was the Queen of England and is known for her patronage of the arts and her own writing. She wrote poetry and translations of works from Latin and Greek.
Mary Sidney (1561-1621): Mary Sidney was an English poet and translator who wrote under the pen name "The Lady Mary Wroth." Her most famous work is "The Countess of Montgomery's Urania," which is considered to be one of the earliest examples of a novel in English.
Isabella Whitney (fl. 1567-1573): Isabella Whitney was an English poet who wrote "The Copy of a Letter," which is the earliest known example of an autobiographical poem by a woman in English. She also wrote a number of other poems, including "A Sweet Nosegay" and "The Manner of Her Will."
Anne Askew (1521-1546): Anne Askew was an English writer and Protestant martyr who was burned at the stake for her religious beliefs. She is known for her "Examinations," which are a series of accounts of her interrogation by religious authorities and her defense of her beliefs.
Notable Men
Sir Thomas More - English lawyer, statesman, and author who wrote the political satire "Utopia" (1516).
William Tyndale - English scholar and theologian who translated the Bible into English.
John Skelton - English poet who wrote satirical and moralistic poems such as "The Bowge of Court" and "Speak, Parrot."
Sir Thomas Wyatt - English poet who was one of the first to introduce the Italian sonnet form to English poetry.
Sir Philip Sidney - English poet, courtier, and soldier who wrote the pastoral romance "Arcadia" and the sonnet sequence "Astrophil and Stella."
Edmund Spenser - English poet who wrote "The Faerie Queene," an epic poem that celebrates the virtues of the Tudor dynasty and Protestantism.
William Shakespeare (Related: Exploring Shakespeare as a Universal Poet) - English playwright and poet who wrote many famous plays, including "Hamlet," "Romeo and Juliet," and "Macbeth."
Christopher Marlowe - English playwright and poet who wrote plays such as "Doctor Faustus" and "Tamburlaine the Great."
John Donne - English poet who wrote religious and love poems such as "Holy Sonnets" and "The Flea."
Sir Francis Bacon - English philosopher and statesman who wrote influential works on science, politics, and philosophy, including "Novum Organum" and "Essays."
II. Elizabethan Period (1558-1603)
The Elizabethan period, which lasted from 1558 to 1603 CE, was a time of great cultural and literary achievement in England. This period saw the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, who is credited with saving England from both Spanish invasion and internal squabbles (Hudson, p. 13).
The Elizabethan period is known for the early works of some of the greatest playwrights and poets in English literature, including William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, John Kydd, and Sir Philip Sidney (Klarer, p. 16). The plays and poetry produced during this time were characterized by a focus on themes of love, honor, and betrayal, and were often set against a backdrop of historical events and figures.
The Elizabethan era is often considered the golden age of English literature, and the works produced during this time have had a lasting impact on the literary world. The plays of Shakespeare, in particular, are still widely studied and performed today, and his works are considered some of the greatest achievements in the history of literature.
Notable Women
Mary Sidney Herbert (1561-1621): She was an accomplished poet, translator, and patron of the arts. Her works include translations of Psalms, sonnets, and other poems.
Aemilia Lanyer (1569-1645): She was an English poet and writer who worked as a lady-in-waiting for Queen Elizabeth I. Her notable works include "The Description of Cooke-ham" and "Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum."
Lady Mary Wroth (1587-1651): She was a poet and writer, known for her prose romance "The Countess of Montgomery's Urania" and her sonnet sequence "Pamphilia to Amphilanthus."
Elizabeth Cary (1585-1639): She was a playwright and author, best known for her play "The Tragedy of Mariam, the Fair Queen of Jewry," which is considered to be one of the first original plays written by a woman in English.
Rachel Speght (c. 1597- after 1621): She was a poet and polemicist who defended women's education and rights. Her works include "Mortalities Memorandum," a poem about death, and "A Mouzell for Melastomus," a response to Joseph Swetnam's "The Arraignment of Lewd, Idle, Froward, and Unconstant Women."
Anne Locke (c. 1530-1590): She was a poet and translator who was known for her translations of religious texts. Her works include "The First Booke of the Christian Exercise," a translation of Juan de Valdés's "Alfabeto Christiano."
Notable Men
William Shakespeare - plays such as "Hamlet," "Macbeth," "Romeo and Juliet," and "King Lear"
Christopher Marlowe - plays such as "Doctor Faustus" and "Tamburlaine"
Francis Bacon - essays such as "Of Truth" and "Of Studies"
Sir Philip Sidney - sonnet sequence "Astrophil and Stella"
Edmund Spenser - epic poem "The Faerie Queene"
Ben Jonson - plays such as "Volpone" and "The Alchemist"
Thomas Kyd - play "The Spanish Tragedy"
John Donne - poetry such as "The Sun Rising" and "The Flea"
Walter Raleigh - poetry such as "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd" and "The Passionate Man's Pilgrimage"
Thomas Campion - poetry and songs such as "Now Winter Nights Enlarge" and "When to Her Lute Corinna Sings"
III. Jacobean Period (1603-1625)
The Jacobean period, which lasted from 1603 to 1625 CE, saw the continuation of the cultural and literary achievements of the Elizabethan era. During this time, Shakespeare produced some of his later works, such as The Tempest and The Winter's Tale (Hudson, p. 14).
Other notable writers of the Jacobean period include Aemilia Lanyer, Ben Jonson, and John Donne (Klarer, p. 17). Lanyer was one of the first published female poets in England, and her work focused on themes of gender and power. Jonson was a playwright and poet known for his wit and satirical style, and Donne was a poet and clergyman whose works explored themes of love and faith.
The Jacobean period was also marked by significant political and social upheaval, with the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 and the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in Europe (Sanders, p. 9). These events had a profound impact on the literature of the time, as writers grappled with issues of religious conflict and political instability.
Overall, the Jacobean period was marked by a continuation of the themes and styles of Elizabethan literature, as well as the emergence of new voices and perspectives. Despite the challenges of the time, it was a period of great creativity and innovation in literature.
Notable Women
Mary Wroth: Wroth was an English poet who wrote "Pamphilia to Amphilanthus," a sonnet sequence that explores the themes of love and desire. She is considered one of the first women to have written a full-length work of prose fiction in English.
Aemilia Lanyer: Lanyer was an English poet and writer who served as a lady-in-waiting in the court of Queen Elizabeth I. She is known for her book "Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum," which is a collection of poetry that celebrates the role of women in Christianity.
Rachel Speght: Speght was an English writer who wrote "A Mouzell for Melastomus," a response to a male writer who had written a book arguing against women's education. In her work, Speght defends women's right to education and intellectual pursuits.
Lady Mary Wroth: Lady Wroth was an English poet who wrote "The Countess of Montgomery's Urania," a pastoral romance that tells the story of a woman who falls in love with a man of lower social status.
Katherine Philips: Philips was an English poet who wrote under the pseudonym "Orinda." Her work includes love poems and elegies, and she is known for her friendship with other literary figures of the time, including the playwright William Wycherley.
Margaret Cavendish: Cavendish was an English writer and philosopher who wrote plays, poetry, and prose. Her work often explores themes of gender and the role of women in society, and she is known for her book "The Blazing World," which is considered an early work of science fiction.
Notable Men
William Shakespeare - an English playwright and poet, widely considered to be one of the greatest writers in the English language. His works include plays such as Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth.
Ben Jonson - an English playwright, poet, and literary critic. He is known for his satirical plays and his influence on the development of the English comedy.
Francis Bacon - an English philosopher, statesman, and essayist. He is considered to be the founder of the scientific method and is known for his contributions to the fields of philosophy and science.
John Donne - an English poet, preacher, and essayist. He is known for his metaphysical poetry and his influence on the development of English literature.
Thomas Middleton - an English playwright and poet. He is known for his plays such as The Changeling and A Game at Chess.
Robert Burton - an English scholar and author. He is known for his work The Anatomy of Melancholy, which explores the causes and symptoms of melancholy.
Thomas Hobbes - an English philosopher, best known for his political philosophy. He is known for his works Leviathan and De Cive, which explore the nature of government and the social contract.
IV. Caroline Age (1625-1649)
The Caroline age, which lasted from 1625 to 1649 CE, was a time of great literary achievement in England. This period saw the reign of King Charles I and the emergence of the Cavaliers, a group of courtiers and poets known for their lavish lifestyle and love of poetry (Hudson, p. 15).
Some of the most notable writers of the Caroline age include John Milton, George Herbert, Robert Herrick, and the "Sons of Ben," a group of poets who were influenced by the work of Ben Jonson (Klarer, p. 18). These writers produced works that explored themes of faith, love, and personal identity, and their poetry and prose had a lasting impact on English literature.
The Caroline age was also marked by significant political and social upheaval, with the outbreak of the English Civil War and the execution of King Charles I (Sanders, p. 10). These events had a profound impact on the literature of the time, as writers grappled with issues of loyalty, power, and the role of the monarchy in society.
Overall, the Caroline age was a time of great creativity and innovation in literature, as writers responded to the challenges and opportunities of their time.
Notable Women
Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle (1623-1673): Cavendish was an English aristocrat, writer, and philosopher. She wrote a variety of works, including poetry, fiction, and scientific treatises. Her most famous works include "The Blazing World," a utopian novel, and "Observations upon Experimental Philosophy," a treatise on natural philosophy.
Katherine Philips (1631-1664): Philips was an English poet and translator. She was part of a literary circle known as the "Society of Friendship" and wrote primarily on the theme of love. Her most famous work is "Poems by the Incomparable Mrs. K. P.," a collection of her poems.
Lady Anne Clifford (1590-1676): Clifford was an English noblewoman, landowner, and patron of the arts. She is known for her diaries, which chronicle her life and times, as well as her efforts to restore and maintain her family's properties.
Bathsua Makin (c. 1600-1675): Makin was an English educator, writer, and translator. She is known for her treatise "An Essay to Revive the Antient Education of Gentlewomen," which argued for the education of women in the classics and other intellectual pursuits.
Notable Men
Thomas Hobbes - an English philosopher known for his works on political philosophy, including "Leviathan" and "De Cive".
Francis Bacon - an English philosopher, statesman, and essayist known for his works on scientific method and empirical philosophy.
John Milton - an English poet, polemicist, and civil servant, known for his epic poem "Paradise Lost".
Robert Burton - an English scholar and writer, best known for his work "The Anatomy of Melancholy".
Sir Thomas Browne - an English polymath and author known for his works on medicine, religion, and science, including "Religio Medici" and "Pseudodoxia Epidemica".
Ben Jonson - an English playwright and poet, known for his works including "Volpone" and "The Alchemist".
William Shakespeare - an English playwright and poet, known for his works including "Hamlet", "Macbeth", and "Romeo and Juliet".
John Donne - an English poet and cleric, known for his works including "The Sun Rising" and "Death Be Not Proud".
V. Commonwealth Period or Puritan Interregnum (1649-1660)
The Commonwealth period, also known as the Puritan interregnum, lasted from 1649 to 1660 CE and was marked by the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his Puritan dictatorship (Hudson, p. 16).
During this time, John Milton continued to write, producing notable works such as Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained (Klarer, p. 19). However, the Commonwealth period also saw the emergence of other writers, including Andrew Marvell and Sir Thomas Browne (Sanders, p. 11). Marvell was a poet and politician known for his wit and political commentary, while Browne was a physician and author whose works explored themes of science, religion, and the natural world.
The Commonwealth period was a time of great change and upheaval in England, as the country underwent significant political and social transformations. This is reflected in the literature of the time, which grappled with issues of power, authority, and the role of the state in society.
Overall, the Commonwealth period was a time of great creativity and innovation in literature, as writers responded to the challenges and opportunities of their time.
Major Themes in the Renaissance and Reformation 1485-1660 CE
The Renaissance and Reformation period (c. 1485-1660 CE) saw a significant cultural and intellectual revival in Europe, characterized by an interest in classical knowledge, humanism, and individualism. Here are some major themes in literature during this period along with examples:
Humanism: The concept of humanism emphasized the value of individual human beings, their achievements, and capabilities. This theme is evident in the works of William Shakespeare, such as "Hamlet," "Romeo and Juliet," and "Macbeth," which explore the complexities of human nature and the human experience.
Reformation: The Reformation was a religious movement that challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestantism. This theme is reflected in the works of John Milton, particularly in his epic poem "Paradise Lost," which deals with religious themes and the concept of free will.
Exploration and discovery: The Renaissance period saw a renewed interest in exploration and discovery, which is evident in literature such as Christopher Marlowe's play "Doctor Faustus," which explores the idea of limitless human potential and the pursuit of knowledge.
Classical influences: The Renaissance was characterized by a revival of classical knowledge and learning, which is evident in the works of Renaissance scholars such as Michel de Montaigne, whose essays were heavily influenced by classical philosophers such as Cicero and Plutarch.
Secularism: The Renaissance period was marked by a shift towards secularism, as people began to place less emphasis on religion and more on individual achievement and worldly pleasures. This theme is evident in the works of playwrights such as Ben Jonson and John Webster, whose plays often explored themes of greed, ambition, and lust.
Individualism: The Renaissance period celebrated the unique talents and abilities of the individual, which is evident in the works of artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, whose paintings and inventions exemplify the creativity and ingenuity of the individual.
Overall, the Renaissance and Reformation period was marked by a significant cultural shift towards humanism, individualism, and secularism, which is reflected in the literature of the time.
Key Timeline Narratives 1485-1660
Political Background
The Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1485-1660 CE) was a period of significant political upheaval and change in Europe. Here are some key timeline narratives:
1492: Columbus reaches the New World, marking the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas.
1517: Martin Luther publishes his 95 Theses, which leads to the Protestant Reformation and the eventual split of the Christian church into Catholic and Protestant denominations.
1534: King Henry VIII of England breaks away from the Catholic Church and establishes the Church of England.
1562-1598: The French Wars of Religion take place, a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants that result in the Edict of Nantes, granting religious toleration to Protestants.
1588: The Spanish Armada, a fleet of Spanish ships, is defeated by the English navy, marking a significant military victory for England and the beginning of their dominance on the high seas.
1618-1648: The Thirty Years' War takes place in Europe, a conflict between Catholic and Protestant forces that results in significant devastation and loss of life across the continent.
1642-1651: The English Civil War takes place, resulting in the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, a short-lived republic.
1660: The English monarchy is restored with the crowning of Charles II, marking the end of the Commonwealth period.
The Economic Background
The emergence of mercantilism: In the 16th century, European states began adopting mercantilist economic policies, which aimed to increase state power and wealth through the accumulation of precious metals, the promotion of exports, and the restriction of imports. This period saw the rise of merchant capitalists who profited from overseas trade.
The transition from feudalism to capitalism: The Renaissance and Reformation period witnessed the decline of feudalism and the emergence of capitalism. Feudal lords were replaced by wealthy merchant capitalists who owned the means of production and employed wage laborers.
The rise of the bourgeoisie: The bourgeoisie, or the middle class, emerged as a new class of capitalists who owned and controlled the means of production. This class played a key role in the development of capitalism and the growth of trade and commerce.
The enclosure movement: In England, the enclosure movement saw the privatization of common lands and the displacement of small farmers. This process was driven by the interests of wealthy landowners who sought to maximize profits by converting traditional farming practices into capitalist enterprises.
The growth of international trade: The Renaissance and Reformation period saw the growth of international trade and the expansion of overseas empires. European powers competed for control of colonies and trade routes, which led to the exploitation of indigenous peoples and the establishment of a global capitalist economy.
Religious Background
1517: Martin Luther publishes his 95 Theses, which challenges the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and sets in motion the Protestant Reformation.
1524-1525: The German Peasants' War, a massive popular uprising against feudal oppression, breaks out in response to the Reformation. Many peasants see Luther's ideas as a way to justify their demands for greater freedom and autonomy.
1536: John Calvin publishes his Institutes of the Christian Religion, which outlines the theology of the Reformed tradition and becomes a key text of the Protestant movement.
1545-1563: The Council of Trent, a Catholic response to the Reformation, begins to reform the Church from within and reaffirm its doctrines in the face of Protestant challenges.
1562-1598: The French Wars of Religion, a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, ravage France and contribute to the destabilization of the feudal order.
1618-1648: The Thirty Years' War, a massive conflict involving most of Europe, is fought between Catholics and Protestants and results in the death of millions. The war is seen as a turning point in European history, marking the beginning of the modern nation-state system.
LATER PERIODS OF LITERATURE
D. The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period (c. 1660-1790)
"Neoclassical" refers to the increased influence of Classical literature upon these centuries. The Neoclassical Period
is also called the "Enlightenment" due to the increased reverence for logic and disdain for superstition. The period
is marked by the rise of Deism, intellectual backlash against earlier Puritanism, and America's revolution against
England.
This age comprises of four periods in the early history of literature.
I. Restoration Period (c. 1660-1700)
The Restoration period, which lasted from around 1660 to 1700 CE, marked the return of the British monarchy to the throne after a period of Puritan rule. This period is characterized by a strong French and Classical influence on English literature, particularly in the genres of poetry and playwriting.
Some notable authors from England during the Restoration period include John Dryden, John Lock, Sir William Temple, Samuel Pepys, and Aphra Behn (Hudson, p. 17). Dryden, known as the "Father of English Criticism," was a prominent playwright and poet who helped to establish the neoclassical style in English literature. Lock, Temple, and Pepys were all influential figures in their respective fields, while Behn was a pioneering female playwright and novelist.
The Restoration period was also marked by the emergence of notable writers from abroad, including Molière and Jean Racine (Klarer, p. 20). Molière was a French playwright known for his satirical comedies, while Racine was a French tragedian whose plays explored themes of love, jealousy, and power.
Overall, the Restoration period was a time of great cultural and artistic innovation in England, as writers and artists responded to the challenges and opportunities of the times.
Notable Women
Aphra Behn (1640-1689): Behn was a prolific playwright, poet, and novelist. She was one of the first English women to earn her living as a writer, and she broke new ground in depicting female sexuality and agency in her work.
Mary Astell (1666-1731): Astell was a philosopher and feminist writer who advocated for the education of women and argued for their intellectual equality with men. Her most famous work is "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies", in which she proposes the creation of a women's academy.
Catherine Trotter Cockburn (1674-1749): Cockburn was a philosopher and playwright who was known for her defense of John Locke's philosophy and her critiques of the work of other philosophers. She also wrote plays that explored social and political issues of the time.
Elizabeth Barry (1658-1713): Barry was an actress and playwright who was known for her dramatic performances and her work in adapting and revising plays. She was one of the most popular actresses of her time and was praised for her ability to portray complex and emotionally intense characters.
Mary Pix (1666-1720): Pix was a playwright who wrote both comedies and tragedies. Her work often focused on the lives of women and explored issues of gender, marriage, and social class.
Notable Men
John Dryden: One of the most prominent poets and playwrights of the Restoration Period, Dryden was known for his satire and political commentary. His most famous works include "Absalom and Achitophel," "Mac Flecknoe," and "All for Love."
Samuel Pepys: Pepys is best known for his diary, which provides an intimate look into the daily life of Restoration England. He was also a member of parliament and a naval administrator.
John Locke: A philosopher and political theorist, Locke is considered one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment. His works include "Two Treatises of Government" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding."
William Congreve: A playwright and poet, Congreve was known for his witty and satirical comedies. His most famous play is "The Way of the World."
Aphra Behn: As one of the first professional female writers in English literature, Behn played a significant role in the literary landscape of the Restoration Period. She wrote plays, poetry, and fiction, and her works often dealt with issues of gender and power. Her most famous play is "The Rover."
II. The Augustan Age (c. 1700-1750)
The Augustan Age, which lasted from around 1700 to 1750 CE, was a time of great literary achievement in England. During this period, writers were heavily influenced by the works of classical authors such as Virgil and Horace, and sought to emulate their style and themes in their own works.
Some of the most notable English writers of the Augustan Age include Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, and Alexander Pope (Sanders, p. 26). Addison and Steele were influential essayists and satirists, while Swift was a prominent author of satire, poems, and political tracts. Pope, a central figure in the neoclassical movement, was known for his poems, translations, and critical works.
The Augustan Age was also marked by the emergence of international writers such as Voltaire, who was a prominent French author known for his wit, his criticism of Christianity, especially the Catholic Church, and his advocacy of civil liberties and freedom of religion (Klarer, p. 25). Voltaire's works, which included plays, poems, and essays, were widely read and influential throughout Europe and beyond.
Overall, the Augustan Age was a time of great literary and cultural achievement, as writers sought to engage with classical traditions and contemporary issues in new and innovative ways.
Notable Women
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu - She was a poet and letter writer known for her witty and satirical works. She is best known for her letters from travels in the Ottoman Empire, which provided insight into the culture and society of the region.
Frances Burney - She was a novelist and playwright who wrote during the later part of the Augustan Age. Her most famous work is the novel "Evelina", which is a satire of London society.
Aphra Behn - She was one of the first women to earn a living through writing in England. She wrote plays, novels, and poetry, and is perhaps best known for her play "The Rover".
Elizabeth Montagu - She was a writer and literary hostess who played an important role in the cultural life of the Augustan Age. She wrote essays on literary and cultural topics, and was known for her wit and intelligence.
Mary Astell - She was a philosopher and feminist who wrote on topics such as education and women's rights. Her most famous work is "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies", which argues for the education of women.
Notable Men
Alexander Pope: An English poet and satirist who is best known for his works "The Rape of the Lock" and "Essay on Man." Pope's works were characterized by their elegant language, use of heroic couplets, and satirical wit.
Jonathan Swift: An Irish writer who is best known for his works "Gulliver's Travels" and "A Modest Proposal." Swift's works often satirized contemporary politics and society, and were characterized by their use of irony and satire.
Daniel Defoe: An English writer who is best known for his novel "Robinson Crusoe." Defoe was also a journalist and pamphleteer, and his works often explored themes of individualism, adventure, and survival.
Samuel Johnson: An English writer and lexicographer who is best known for his "Dictionary of the English Language." Johnson's works were characterized by their wit, intelligence, and moralizing tone.
John Dryden: An English poet and playwright who is best known for his works "Absalom and Achitophel" and "All for Love." Dryden's works were characterized by their use of heroic couplets and their exploration of political and social themes.
III. The Age of Johnson (c. 1750-1790)
The Age of Johnson, which lasted from around 1750 to 1790 CE, was a time of great literary and cultural achievement in England. This period is often referred to as the transition from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, as it saw the emergence of new literary movements and styles that challenged the dominant neoclassical ideals of the time.
Some of the most notable writers of the Age of Johnson include Samuel Johnson, Boswell, and Edward Gibbon, who were known for their adherence to neoclassical principles and their contributions to the fields of literature and scholarship (Hudson, p. 45). In contrast, writers such as Robert Burns, Thomas Gray, William Cowper, and George Crabbe were known for their departure from neoclassical ideals and their exploration of new themes and styles that would later come to be associated with Romanticism.
The Age of Johnson was also a time of great cultural and political change in America, as the country underwent a period of colonization and revolution. During this time, authors such as Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and Benjamin Franklin emerged as important figures in the fight for independence and the development of a new national identity. Their works, which included political tracts, essays, and letters, helped to shape the course of American history and continue to be widely read and studied today.
Overall, the Age of Johnson was a time of great literary and cultural achievement, as writers sought to engage with the changing political and cultural landscape of the time and to explore new themes and styles in their work.
E. ROMANTIC PERIOD (c. 1790-1830)
In England,
romantic poets discuss the outdoors, creativity, and uniqueness. Coleridge, Blake (Related: William Blake as a Mystic Poet), Keats, and Shelley in Britain and Johann von Goethe in Germany are a few Romantics. Although she is often not included with the male Romantic poets, Jane Austen also writes around this time. This era in America is reflected in the Transcendental Period, which lasted from around 1830 to 1850. Among the transcendentalists are Thoreau and Emerson. Between 1790 and 1890, the Gothic period overlaps with the Romantic and Victorian eras. In Britain, authors like Radcliffe, Monk Lewis, and Victorians like Bram Stoker wrote Gothic tales, which are the forerunners of horror literature. Poe and Hawthorne are examples of American Gothic authors.
Victorian Period (c. 1832-1901)
Sentimental books were written throughout Queen Victoria's reign. Elizabeth Browning, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold (Related: Function of Criticism at the Present Time Mathew Arnold), Robert Browning, Charles Dickens, and the Bront sisters are examples of British authors who wrote during this time period (Hudson, p. 122). The Pre-Raphaelites, including the Rossettis and William Morris, idealized and yearned for the morality of the medieval era (Sanders, p. 145). The intellectual movements of aestheticism and "the Decadence," as seen in the writings of Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde, marked the end of the Victorian era (Klarer, p. 177). In America, early free verse poets such as Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, as well as naturalist authors like Stephen Crane, flourished during this time (Introduction to Literary Studies, p. 209).
The Victorian era was a time of great cultural and technological change. It saw the Industrial Revolution, which had a profound impact on literature and the arts. The Victorian era was also marked by the rise of the middle class and the decline of the aristocracy, which led to a shift in the themes and subjects of literature. Many Victorian writers, such as Charles Dickens, focused on social issues and the plight of the poor, while others, such as Thomas Hardy, wrote about the changing landscape of rural England. The Victorian era was also a time of great scientific discovery, and many writers, such as H.G. Wells, incorporated elements of science and technology into their works.
In addition to the writers mentioned above, the Victorian period saw the emergence of many other notable figures in literature. These include Lewis Carroll, the author of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland; the poets Gerard Manley Hopkins and Alfred, Lord Tennyson; and the novelists George Eliot and the Bronte sisters. The Victorian period was a time of great creativity and innovation, and it laid the foundation for much of the literature that would follow in the 20th century.
Modern Period
W. B. Yeats, Seamus Heaney, Dylan Thomas, W. H. Auden, Virginia Woolf, and Wilfred Owen are examples of British modernist authors (Hudson, p. 224). In America, the modernist era includes Flannery O'Connor, Robert Frost, and Hemingway in addition to the well-known authors of The Lost Generation (also known as the writers of the Jazz Age, 1914–1929) (Sanders, p. 170). The emergence of black authors like Baldwin and Ellison is referred to as "the Harlem Renaissance" (Klarer, p. 123). The disappointment caused by the World Wars has given rise to fresh experiments in literature, with a focus on realism (Introduction to Literary Studies, p. 199).
The modernist movement in literature was characterized by a rejection of traditional forms and the incorporation of new techniques, such as stream of consciousness and interior monologue (Hudson, p. 224). This period also saw the emergence of Dadaism and Surrealism, which sought to challenge the conventions of traditional art and literature (Sanders, p. 170).
In addition to the artistic and literary movements of the modern period, this time period was also marked by significant political and social upheaval. The World Wars and the rise of totalitarian regimes had a profound impact on society, and this is reflected in the literature of the time (Klarer, p. 123). The modern period saw the emergence of anti-war and anti-establishment literature, as writers grappled with the changing world around them (Introduction to Literary Studies, p. 199).
H. POSTMODERN PERIOD (c. 1945 onward)
In the postmodern period, many writers and playwrights explored forms such as metafiction and fragmentary poetry. T. S. Eliot, Morrison, Shaw, Beckett, Stoppard, Fowles, Calvino, Ginsberg, and Pynchon are some notable examples of postmodern authors. The increased diversity in literature has also led to the canonization of non-white authors such as Zora Neal Hurston, Sandra Cisneros, and Langston Hughes (Hudson, p. 98).
Another trend in postmodern literature is magic realism, which involves weaving realist conventions with surrealistic texts. Salman Rushdie, Alejo Carpentier, Günter Grass, Luis Borges, Gabriel García Márquez, and Luis Borges are some of the prominent magic realist authors (Sanders, p. 101).
The postmodern period has also been characterized by a focus on the individual and their subjective experiences, as seen in the works of writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Jean-François Lyotard (Klarer, p. 120). This has led to a move away from grand narratives and a skepticism towards universal truths and objectivity.
Overall, the postmodern period has been marked by a shift towards experimentation and a challenge to traditional literary forms and structures. (Mario Klarer, Introduction to Literary Studies, p. 121).
Important Note: You can share your thoughts and join the conversation below!
References:
1. Hudson, William Henry. Introduction to the Study of Literature. Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892.
2. Klarer, Mario. Introduction to Literary Studies. Routledge, 2012.
3. Sanders, Andrew. The Short Oxford History of English Literature. Oxford University Press, 2002.
